“If
there is much misunderstanding in the West about the nature of Islam, there is
also much ignorance about the debt our own culture and civilisation owe to the
Islamic World. It is a failure, which stems, I think from the straight
jacket of history, which we have inherited. The medieval Islamic world, from
Central Asia to the shores of the Atlantic , was
a world where scholars and men of learning flourished. But because we have
tended to see Islam as the enemy of the West, as an alien culture, society and
system of belief, we have tended to ignore or erase its great relevance to our
own history.”
Prince
Charles in a speech “Islam and the West”, Oxford
Muslims
distinguished themselves not only as theoretical scientists and scientific
thinkers, but contributed through innumerable inventions to the growth of the
modern sciences. Though the mediaeval Muslims had very meagre resources at
their command as compared to those of the present age, they achieved a great
deal. They replaced the old speculative method of the Greeks with an
experimental method, which in later periods formed the basis of all scientific
investigations.
1. The
Watch The
first watch was made by Kutbi, a renowned watch-maker of his time. During
the Abbasid period, which lasted between 750-1258 the use of a watch became
quite common. Abbasid is the dynastic name generally given to the caliph of Baghdad , the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of
the Islamic empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Spain Europe and was
regarded as an object of wonder. Mustansariya, the well-known university of
Baghdad had a unique clock with a dial blue like the sky and a sun which
continually moved over its surface denoting the time. Maulana Shibli, the
famous Urdu litterateur, has described a watch of Damascus
2. Astronomy
and Navigation Giralda
or "The Tower of Seville ", was the first observatory in Europe . It was built in 1190 A.D., in the Spanish town of
Seville
The many
references to astronomy in the Qur'an and hadith, and the injunctions to learn,
inspired the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They integrated the
earlier works of the Indians, Persians and Greeks into a new production. Muslims
were inspired to investigate and study the Earth, the features of the land,
methods of mapping and so on. Many new stars were discovered, as we see
in their Arabic names - Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran.
Astronomical tables were compiled, among them the Toledan tables, which were
used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler. These works were used to
determine the direction of Makkah from various locations, to improve navigation
and surveying, and establishing correct time keeping and calenders. Using
longitude and latitude, calculating the circumference of the Earth within a few
hundred miles, the Muslim geographers greatly improved on Ptolemy's famous
'Almagest', that it is not certain how much of the work actually belongs to the
famous Greek, and how much was added to successive copies. Muslim astronomers
were the first to establish observatories, like the one built at Mugharah by
Hulagu, the son of Genghis Khan, in Persia, and they invented instruments such
as the quadrant and astrolabe, which led to advances not only in astronomy but
in oceanic navigation, contributing to the European age of exploration. Other
instruments used by muslim astronomers and navigators were the quadrant and the
planisphere, a large, complicated device for plotting stars. Observatories were
set up in desert locations where the best observations could be made. Accurate
measurement of time used very similar mathematical skills to those needed for
navigation. Al-Biruni, a famous Muslim scholar of the 11th century,
wrote a mathematical treatise on shadows that helped regulate sundials
accurately.
What’s
more, Al-Biruni, worked out that the earth is round and calculated its
circumference. He also stated that the earth spins on its axis and rotates
around the sun, nearly six hundred years before Galileo.
3. Mathematics Bold experiments and
unique innovations in the field of mathematics were carried out by Muslim
mathematicians who developed this science to an exceptionally high degree. Their
contributions stretched from the end of the eighth century to about the middle
of the fifteenth century. The regions from which the "Muslim
mathematicians" came was centred on Iran/Iraq but varied with military
conquest during the period. At its greatest extent it stretched to the west
through Turkey and North
Africa to include most of Spain ,
and to the east as far as the borders of China
Algebra
may be said to have been invented by the Greeks, but according to Oelsner,
"it was confined to furnishing amusement for the plays of the
goblet". Muslims developed it and applied it to higher purposes. Thus,
the first great Muslim mathematician, the Persian Al-Khawarizmi,
invented the subject of algebra (al-Jabr), which gave mathematics a whole new
dimension and development path so much broader in concept than before. Another
important aspect of the introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed
mathematics to be applied to itself in a way which had not happened before.
Al-Khawarizmi
also introduced a method similar to long division to extract the square root
(jithr) of a number. He was the first to introduce the concept of mal (power)
for the squared unknown variable. He perfected and developed the Hindu
geometric representations of quadratic equations having two variables, e.g the
circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola (conic sections) etc. Al-Khawarizmi's
work, in Latin translation, brought the Arabic numerals along with the
mathematics to Europe, through Spain
4. Medical
Sciences The
Muslims have made a lasting contribution to the development of Medical Science.
Al-Razi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Abu Ali al-Hasan (Alhazen) were the
greatest medical scholars of mediaeval times.
Abū Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi is known in the West as Rhazes. According to
al-Biruni, a great Muslim scientist, he was born in Rayy , Iran
Al-Razi
was a versatile Persian physician, philosopher, and scholar who made
fundamental and enduring contributions to the fields of medicine, alchemy, and
philosophy, recorded in over 184 books and articles in various fields of
science. He was well versed in Greek medical knowledge and added
substantially to it from his own observations. He was unquestionably one of the
greatest thinkers of the Islamic World, and had an enormous influence on
European science and medicine.
He was the
inventor of "Seton". ‘Seton’ is the thread or similar object inserted
beneath the skin to provide drainage or to guide subsequent passage of a tube,
in surgery.
Further
more he was the author of 'Al-Judari wal Hasbak', authentic book dealing with
measles and small pox, describing how to distinguish then from each other. Seen as
one of the greatest physicians in the world in the Middle Ages, Al-Razi
stressed empirical observation and clinical medicine and was unrivalled as a
diagnostician. He also wrote works on hygiene in hospitals.
The
10th century
surgeon al-Zahrawi was the first to develop sophisticated surgical tools for
operations. He also made plaster to help broken bones heal. Al-Zahrawi
developed pioneering operative techniques, including the ceasarean section.
Avicenna
wrote 'Al-Qanun Jil Tib known as Cannon', which was the most widely studied
medical work of mediaevel times and was reprinted more than twenty times during
the last 30 years of the 15th century in many different languages. The
book remained a standard textbook even in Europe ,
for over 700 years.
The
contagious character of the plague and its remedies were discovered by Ibn
Katina, a Moorish Physician. Other significant contributions were made in pharmacology,
such as Ibn Sina's 'Kitab al-Shifa' (Book of Healing), and in public health.
Every major city in the Islamic world had a number of excellent hospitals, some
of them teaching hospitals, and many of them were specialized for particular
diseases, including mental and emotional. The Ottomans were particularly noted
for their building of hospitals and for the high level of hygiene practiced in
them.
5.
Development of chemistry
Besides
medicine, astronomy and mathematics, chemistry is the fourth major science in
which Muslims have made the greatest contribution. Until as recently as the
17th century, they were considered authorities in this science. Among
the long list of great Muslim chemists we find two names, Jabir Ibn Hayyan and
Zakariya Razi, reaching distinction. Writing in his illuminating History of the
Arabs, the French historian and Arabist Philip K. Hitti acknowledges the
greatness of Arabs in this branch of science when he says, "After materia
medica, astronomy and mathematics, the Arabs made their greatest scientific
contribution in chemistry. In the study of chemistry and other physical
sciences, the Arabs introduced the objective experiment, a decided improvement
over the hazy speculation of Greeks.”
Jabir
Ibn Hayyan (722 CE - 815 CE), is unanimously considered as the founder of
chemistry. He identified many new acids, alkalines and salts. He
devised and perfected chemical processes such as sublimation, crystallization,
distillation, evaporation, and filtration. He initiated the classification of
materials into spirits and metals. Ten centuries before John Dalton, Jabir
Ibn Hayyan defined chemical combinations as a union of the elements together,
in too small a particle for the naked eye to see, without loss of character.
Al-Kindi
(801-873) from Kufah (Iraq
Al-Razi
(born in 850 CE) established the firm foundations of modern chemistry by
setting up, for the first time, the laboratory in the modern sense, designing,
describing and using more than twenty instruments, many parts are still in use
today. Such as a crucible, decensory, cucurbit or retort for distillation, and
the head of a still with a delivery tube (ambiq, Latin alembic), various types
of furnace or stove. As an alchemist, Razi is
credited with discovering Sulphuric acid, and the basic notions of modern
chemistry and chemical engineering. He also discovered ethanol and its
refinement and use in medicine. What’s more, he classified substances into
mineral, vegetable and animal.
6. KIOSKS
If
you've ever been to a shopping centre or train station you've probably been to
a kiosk. But the kiosk as a building type is not a new invention. As
a building type it was first introduced by the Seljuqs (a Muslim dynasty of Oghuz
Turkic descent that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th
centuries) and was a small building attached to the main mosque. It
consisted of a domed hall with open arched sides, gradually evolved into a
summer house used by Ottoman sultans, perhaps the most famous of these kiosks
are the Cinili koshk (kiosk in Turkish) and Baghdad Topkapi Palace , Istanbul Topkapi Palace Istanbul
Sultan
Ahemd III (1703-1730) also built a glass room of the Sofa kiosk at the Topkapi Palace
Historic
sources confirm the transfer of these kiosks to European monarchs. The king of Poland , and the father in law of Louis 15th, Stanilas
of Lorraine built kiosks for himself based on his memories of his captivity in Turkey
7. Scales in music
Did
you know that the basic scale in music today comes from Arabic syllables do,
re, mi, fa, sol, la and ti? The Arabic alphabet for these notes is
Dal-Ra-Mim-Fa-Sad-Lam-Sin.
The
notation, which consists of the syllables (known as solmisation); do, re, mi,
fa, sol, la and ti, is widely known as Latin, borrowed from the syllables of
the Hymn of St. John. The Italian musician, Guido of Arezzo (c.995-1050) is
commonly credited with its invention in 1026. However Villoteau, (d.1839) took
the position of the French historian Laborde, admitting the Muslim influence on
the theory of music. From comparing Guido's music scale with that of the
Muslims, he found striking resemblances, which led him to believe that the
former had adopted his theory from the Muslims. He commented: "according
to all appearances it is this latter which served as the model for that of
Guido of Arezzo".
How did
Guido know about Muslim work?
Soriano
revealed that Guido had studied in Catalunya, in Spain
8. COFFEE
Most
Americans and Europeans, think that Muslim food and cuisine are confined to
Curry, Biryani, Kebabs, Chapati and Pitta and sweets such as Kulfi and Baklawa.
They are not aware of the numerous other foods and drinks, supposedly western,
which are of Muslim origins. An example of these is
coffee, which has invaded every household's breakfast.
The
earliest cup of coffee was made in Yemen by a group of Sufis, who boiled the
beans and drunk it to help them stay awake all night in prayers and remembrance
of God (Allah) as early as 9th century. A group of their
students took it to Cairo Turkey
Europe
did not taste coffee until the 16th century first landing at Italy imported by
Venetian merchants, who traded with Muslims in North Africa, Egypt
5. Perfumes
from the East
People
have enjoyed perfume for centuries. The hard work of two talented chemists,
Jabir ibn Hayyan (born 722) and al-Kindi (born 801) helped lay the foundations
and established the perfume industry. Jabir developed
many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which
enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be
collected in the form of water or oil.
Al-Kindi
was the real founder of the perfume industry as he carried out extensive
research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to
produce a variety of scented products. He elaborated a
vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals. His work in the laboratory is reported by a witness who said
`I received the following description, or recipe, from Abu Yusuf Ya'qub b.
Ishaq al-Kindi, and I saw him making it and giving it an addition in my presence.'
The writer goes on in the same section to speak of the preparation of a perfume
called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients which reveals
a long list of technical names of drugs and apparatus.
Musk
and floral perfumes were brought to Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries from
Arabia, through trade with the Islamic world and with the returning Crusaders. Those
who traded for these were most often also involved in trade for spices and
dyestuffs. There are records of the Pepperers Guild of London which go back to
1179; their activities include trade in spices, perfume ingredients and dyes.
9.
Laying down the red carpet
Did
you know that the carpet industry originated in the Muslim world, developing
this ancient industry into very sophisticated designs. The
Muslim carpet has long been a luxury commodity sought by textile museums, rich
collectors and wealthy merchants all over the world. The fame of the flying
carpet of 'Al'a Al-Din added some mystery to its already exceptional beauty and
tangible quality. It is not surprising that carpets still represent one of the
most valuable art items obtained by museums and wealthy families of the West.
Carpet
making has long been an old tradition, even before Islam, among the Bedouin
tribes of Arabia , Persia
and Anatolia who used it as a tent sheltering
them from the sand storms, a floor covering providing great comfort for the
household, wall curtains protecting privacy and many other useful items such as
blankets, bags, and saddles.
Historic
sources reveal that the Caliphate in Cordoba who came up with the idea of using
carpets for formal events which became part of the custom of rolling out
carpets for visits from royalty and ambassadors, which was adopted in Europe in
the 12th century.
10. The
World's First Soft Drink
Sherbet,
a juice of crushed fruit, herbs, or flowers has long existed as one of the most
popular beverages from and of the Muslim world, winning over Western figures
such as Lord Byron. Muslims developed a variety of juices to make their Sharab,
an Arabic word from which the Italian sorbetto, French sorbet and English
sherbet were derived. Today, this juice is known by a multitude of names, is
associated with numerous cultural traditions, and is produced by countries ranging
from India to the United States of America
11. Sight
savers
Did
you know the first operation to remove cataracts was carried out as early as
the 10th century in Iraq
Muslim
inherited two explanations of vision. Ptolemy and Euclid
both believed that vision was produced by the emission of light from the eyes,
but their theory did not provide a reasonable explanation of perspective, the
effect whereby the apparent size of an object depends upon its distance from
the observer. Aristotle, Gallen and their followers stood for the so called
`intromission,' something entering the eyes representative of the object, but
again did not provide proper empirical explanation.
Al-Kindi
was the first to question Euclid ’s theory of
emission and to put some alternative suggestions, for example, asserting that a
visual cone is not formed of discrete rays as Euclid
The proper
scientific explanation had to wait until the arrival of Ibn al-Haitham
(965-1039 CE), known in the West as Al-Hazen, who once and for all explained how
we see, through light reflecting off an object and entering the eye. He backed
this up with many rigorous experiments, establishing the scientific foundations
for modern optics, combining the `mathematical' approach of Euclid and Ptolemy
with the `physical' principle favoured by the natural philosophers.
During his
light and vision experiments, Ibn Al-Hayhtam discovered the camera obscura
phenomenon. He went to explain that we see objects upright and not upside down,
as the camera does, because of the connection of the optic nerve with the brain
which analyses and defines the image.
12. First
bold attempt at flight
Did
you know that the first really scientific attempt to fly in the Muslim World
was made in the 9th century? Abul Qasim Ibn Firnas, who lived in the Spanish
city of Cordoba, built a glider which was capable of carrying a human being.
Since
antiquity, flying has always been a human dream as early civilisations could
only watch and admire the gracefulness of flying birds. In 852 C.E., Abbas Ibn
Firnas, or Armen Firman in Latin, a Moor(a Muslim of the mixed Berber and Arab
people inhabiting N Africa) from Cordoba Cordoba
Another
Muslim, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi (1609-1640) flew successfully from one side of
the Bosphorus in Istanbul
13. The
first windmill
Did
you know that the first windmill was constructed as early as 7th century? One
thing the vast deserts of Arabia had was wind,
when the seasonal streams ran dry, and these desert winds had a constant wind
direction. For about one hundred and twenty days the wind blew regularly from
the same place.
The
windmill was so simple yet effective that it quickly spread all over the world
from its 7th century Persian origins. After this,
wind-power became widely used to run mill stones for grinding corn, and also to
draw up water for irrigation. This was first in the Persian province of Sistan,
and al-Mas`udi, an Arab geographer who lived in the 10th century, described the
region as a country of wind and sand. He also wrote, a characteristic of the
area is that the power of the wind is used to drive pumps for watering gardens.
Most historians believe that it was the crusaders who introduced windmills to Europe in the 12th century.
14. From
bucket to bike
Did
you know that Muslim engineer Al-Jazari came up with an ingenious device for
lifting huge buckets of water without lifting a finger? It was grandly called
the crank-connecting rod system. This was his most important contribution to
engineering, and had a huge impact on the development of technology. This
simple device started a revolution in engineering that has found it highest
form of expression in the bicycle.
In his
fourth water raising machine, Al-Jazari produced the first demonstration of
useful work by the crank. The machine uses a slider crank mechanism to provide
the repetitive motion of the flume ladle. The crank is considered as one of the
most important mechanical discoveries made, since it permits the transmission
of rotary motion to linear motion. This is central to much of the machinery in
the modern world, not least the internal combustion engine. His manuscript
shows he also invented or refined the use of valves and pistons, devised some
of the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and was the father
of robotics. The book contained a staggering number
of 50 other inventions including the combination lock.
Sarton
commented on this work, “This treatise is the most elaborate of its kind and
may be considered the climax of this line of Muslim achievement”. The book is
rich in minute description of various kinds of devices.
The late
Donald Hill, who translated the manuscript, maintains “It is impossible to
over-emphasize the importance of Al-Jazari`s work in the history of
engineering. Until modern times there is no other document from any cultural
area that provides a comparable wealth of instructions for the design,
manufacture and assembly of machines”. He adds further: Al-Jazari did not only
assimilate the techniques of his non-Arab and Arab predecessors, he was also
creative. He added several mechanical and hydraulic devices. The impact of
these inventions can be seen in the later designing of steam engines and
internal combustion engines, paving the way for automatic control and other
modern machinery. The impact of Al-Jazari`s inventions is still felt in modern
contemporary mechanical engineering.They were the predecessors of today’s mechanical
engineers.
15. Modelling the Stars
From
the beginnings of human awakening people have pondered at the amazing canopy of
stars and at the movement of everything in the sky. Clearly there was
order in the heavens. Many attempts were made to identify the patterns in this
order. This had great significance to life, since through these observations
and derivations of rules we have the beginnings of predictive science. We can
predict the position of the Sun in the sky, the Moon, the timing of eclipses, the
changing position of the planets and the stars. In an attempt to make these
predictions easier, people from many great Civilisations have built different
kinds of models reflecting in a physical form what they have seen. These models
were built based on the perspective of the earth with a sphere of stars
surrounding the earth. There were several kinds of models:
1.
Celestial Globes 2. Astrolabes 3. Armillary Spheres
Muslim
Astronomers took much from Greek astronomical calculations and models and
improved on them in several ways making the measurements and predictions more
and more accurate.
16. Using
an Astrolabe
Al Sufi,
one of the most famous astronomers of the Islamic world was writing in Isfahan (in modern day Iran
The
fundamental operation of astrolabes has varied little in their long history,
all use the relationship between the apparent movement of the stars, as seen
from a particular latitude on Earth, and time – allowing them to be used to
find the time from the stars or Sun, and the position of the stars and Sun at a
particular time (a feature particularly useful when casting horoscopes). All
similarly have the flexibility to be used as both an observational instrument
and as an aid to mathematical calculation.
An
astrolabe is made up of 4 main pieces:
- the
mater or base plate
- the rete
or top web-like plate which shows the fixed stars, the ecliptic (the zodiac
constellations and part of the sky across which the Sun travels) and certain
naked eye stars
- the
plates, each of which is made for a different latitude. Each plate has engraved
on it a grid marking the zenith (point directly over head), the horizon and all
the altitudes in between
- the
alidade or rule with sights used for making observations and reading off
scales.
The rete
and plates are designed to fit into the mater.
17. The Pendulum
The
Pendulum was invented by Ibn Yunus, a genius in science who lived in the reign
of Aziz Billah and Hakim bi-Amr-illah, the Fatimid monarchs of Egypt
18. The
Mariners Compass
The
invention of Mariners Compass, which revolutionised sea borne commerce and
oceanic shipping and enabled the Arabs to roam over the stormy seas in quest of
new lands and additional markets for their commodities, is essentially a
contribution of the Muslims to the world of science. Knowledge about the
properties of the needle, can no doubt be traced to Chinese sources, but
putting it into working shape, in the form of a mariners' compass, was the
achievement of Muslim scientists. The compass was probably invented for the
purpose of finding out the Qibla for Prayers.
19.
Braille
Did
you know that well before braille was invented that some 600 years before a
Syrian muslim had created his own system? The distinguished
blind Arab professor, Zain-Din al Amidi in the 14th century improvised a method
by which he identified his books and made notes. Although blind soon after
birth, he led a studious life, interesting himself particularly in
jurisprudence and foreign languages.
20.
Toothbrush
While the
toothbrush may appear a modern invention the Prophet Mohammed made popular the
use of a piece from the Meswak tree to clean the teeth and freshen the breath!
It was recently proven that Meswak contains substances similar to that found in
modern tooth paste which help protect teeth and freshens the breath.
The
Swiss pharmaceutical company Pharba Basle Ltd carried out experiments on
extracts of Meswak, botanically known as Salvadora Persica. It was found that
it contains antibacterial substances which destroy the harmful germs in the
mouth which cause gum infections and tooth decay. Independent tests
conducted on the Meswak extracts in the Departments of Chemistry, Riyadh University , Saudi
Arabia and Indiana
University , Indiana , USA
21. Soap
Medieval
times are generally renowned for their lack of cleanliness and hygiene.
However, only a few who know that Muslims, as early as the 7th century,
developed a sophisticated hygienic lifestyle that was as popular among the
ordinary masses as it was with the nobles and royals.
Perhaps
one of the great manifestations of Muslim cleanliness is the invention of soap.
They made soap by mixing oil (usually olive oil) with al-qali (salt-like
substance), which was boiled to achieve the right mix, and left to harden
before using it at home or in the hammams or bath houses. Different recipes for
different types of soap were written by various scholars including Al-Razi. A
recently discovered manuscript from the 13th century details more recipes for
soap making; take some sesame oil, a sprinkle of potash, alkali and some lime,
mix them all together and boil. When cooked, they are poured into moulds and
left to set, leaving hard soap.
22.
Cosmetics
One
of the leading cosmetologists was the famous physician and father of surgery,
Abu al-Qassim al-Zahrawi, or Abulcassis (936-1013 CE). He wrote a monumental
work, a medical encyclopaedia entitled Al-Tasreef, in 30 volumes, which was
translated into Latin and used as the main medical textbook in most
Universities of Europe.
In the 19th
volume of Al-Tasreef a chapter was devoted completely to cosmetics and is the
first original Muslim work in cosmetology. Zahrawi’s contribution in medicated
cosmetics include under-arm deodorants, hair removing sticks and hand lotions.
Hair dyes are mentioned turning blond hair to black and hair care is included,
even for correcting kinky or curly hair. He even mentioned the benefits of
suntan lotions, describing their ingredients in detail.
Zahrawi
considered cosmetics a definite branch of medication (Adwiyat al-Zinah). He
deals with perfumes, scented aromatics and incense. There were perfumed stocks
rolled and pressed in special moulds, perhaps the earliest antecedents of
present day lipsticks and solid deodorants. He used oily substances called Adhan
for medication and beautification. There are many a hadith of the Prophet
(pbuh) which refer to cleanliness, management of dress, and care of hair and
body. On this basis, Zahrawi described the care and beautification of hair,
skin, teeth and other parts of the body, all within the boundaries of Islam.
23.
Gunpowder
Mir
Fatehullah Khan is known to history as the inventor of the gun and gunpowder.
The presumption that gunpowder was first made by the Chinese does not stand the
test of historical research. Writing in his book Arab Civilization, the
author says that "gunpowder was a great invention of the Arabs who were
already using guns". Guns were used by Arabs in 1340 A.D. in the defence
of Al-Bahsur, when Franzdol besieged it. The statement of Dr. Leabon about
the invention of gunpowder by the Arabs is further corroborated by Mr. Scott in
his well-known work, History of the Moorish Empire in Spain
24. The
impact of Muslim learning on the West
Did
you know that between the 7th and 12th centuries, when religion dominated
European culture that Muslim educational institutions led the way? As the
results of their progressive education reached the West through Muslim works
covering everything from medicine to history they helped encourage the revival
of learning in Europe.
An
important aspect of Islam is to seek knowledge which motivated and led the
Muslims to develop a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge in
purpose built structures. At first the mosque combined both religious
performance and learning activities. By the tenth century, the Seljuks (ruled
between 11th and early 14th centuries), introduced the first Madrassa, a proper
school built independently from the mosque.
Under the
Ottomans (ruled 15th-20th centuries), learning was given a new dimension as the
towns of Bursa and Edirne
The
first university was also developed from the mosque, usually of central
location and of primary functional importance. Great university
mosques such as al-Qarawiyyin (859 CE, Fez ),
Al-Azhar (956 CE, Cairo ) and Cordoba
(8th century) were the Oxford
25. Turning
clay to gold
As
far back as the 8th century potters working in what is now Iraq
Lustre
provided the right ingredients for producing such vessels in a cheaper and
acceptable way as Islam prohibits the use of gold and silver vessels. It was
produced from applying a thin glaze prepared from the oxides of silver and
copper before the vessel being in a reducing furnace. When silver is used, a
paler yellow or golden and silvery effect was obtained. In case of copper the
produce of it is of a darker and redder colour.
The
technique involved preparing pigments by mixing silver or copper oxides with an
earthy vehicle such as ochre, and then vinegar or grape juice were added as
medium. This pigment was then painted onto the glassy surface of the vessel,
which had been glazed and fired once. The vessel was then fired for a second
time in a reducing kiln, and then the ochre was rubbed away to reveal the gold
lustre.
26. Pioneering
plastic surgery
Did
you know that way back in the 10th century Muslim doctor Al-Zahrawi pioneered
plastic surgery. In fact it was his practice of using ink to mark the incisions
that has now become a standard procedure. Most of the
instruments Al-Zahrawi invented are still used today. In his al-Tasrif book, he
talked about surgery for nose polyp removal and dealt with obstetrics and the
surgery of eyes, ears, and teeth and gave detailed description of their
surgical instruments.
27. Calligraphy
and reform of the Arabic language
As the
teachings of Islam spread beyond the boundaries of the Arabian
Peninsula , an enormous number of people worldwide became Muslims.
The new Muslims interpreted the art of writing as an abstract expression of
Islam, each according to their own cultural and aesthetic systems. The influx
of this cultural diversity led to two major events: the birth of regional
calligraphic schools and styles such as Ta'liq in Persia
and Deewani in Turkey
The first
movement to reform the Arabic language and writing system came during the
Umayyad era. Abul Aswad ad-Du'ali was the prophet and legendary founder of
Arabic grammar and is credited with the invention of placing diacritical points
to distinguish between certain identical consonants such as the 'gaf' and 'fa'
in the Arabic alphabet. This system of diacritical marks is known as
Tashkil (vocalization). Different colors also were introduced to differentiate
between these marks--black for the diacriticals and red or yellow for the
vocalics.
The
powerful and energetic Umayyad viceroy al-Hajjaj Ibn Yousuf al-Thaqafi
(694-714), took on the responsibility of solving problems concerning
diacriticals. He commissioned Nasr and Yehya to refine the Tashkil system. They
introduced the use of dots and certain vowel signs as differentiating marks.
The dots were placed either above or beneath the letter, either single or in
groups of two or three.
Unfortunately,
for many people and scribes the system was unclear and confusing. A more
sophisticated system was needed. The second reform movement was undertaken
around 786. Khalil Ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, the famous Arab philologist and
lexicographer, was entrusted with devising a new Tashkil system. Al-Farahidi
introduced vowel signs inspired by the initial shape or parts of certain
letters. The sign 'hamza,' for example, is part of the letter 'ayn' (without
its end-tail).
The new
system gained wide popularity throughout the Muslim world. And Arabic
calligraphy acquired the characteristics of beauty, sanctity, and versatility.
Arabic calligraphy was used administratively, on architecture, on coins, to pen
impressive epistles, and to produce elegant books, especially the Holy Qur'an,
miniatures, and other literary works.
28. Manufacturing
of Paper and Cloth The
first paper in Islamic countries was manufactured in 794 A.D. in Baghdad Europe . By further developing the technique, they managed
to produce paper on a larger scale. A paper mill was established in Baghdad Europe .
In the
manufacture of cloth, Muslims particularly in Spain
29. The
Agricultural Revolution
As
early as the ninth century, a modern agricultural system became central to
economic life and organization in the Muslim land.
The great
Islamic cities of the Near East, North Africa and Spain, Artz explains, were
supported by an elaborate agricultural system that included extensive
irrigation and an expert knowledge of the most advanced agricultural methods in
the world.
The
Muslims reared the finest horses and sheep and cultivated the best orchards and
vegetable gardens. They knew how to fight insect pests, how to use fertilizers,
and they were experts at grafting trees and crossing plants to produce new
varieties.
Glick
defines the Muslim agricultural revolution in the introduction of new crops,
which, combined with extension and intensification of irrigation, created a
complex and varied agricultural system, whereby a greater variety of soil types
were put to efficient use; where fields that had been yielding one crop yearly at
most prior to the Muslims were now capable of yielding three or more crops, in
rotation; and where agricultural production responded to the demands of an
increasingly sophisticated and cosmopolitan urban population by providing the
towns with a variety of products unknown in Northern Europe.
Whilst for
Scott, the agricultural system of the Spanish Muslims, in particular, was `the
most complex, the most scientific, the most perfect, ever devised by the
ingenuity of man.'
Fertilisers,
in their variety, were used according to a well-advanced methodology; whilst a
maximum amount of moisture in the soil was preserved.
Soil
rehabilitation was constantly cared for, and preserving the deep beds of
cropped land from erosion was, according to Bolens, again, `the golden rule of
ecology,' and was `subject to laws of scrupulous careful ecology.'
The rise
of productivity of agricultural land and sometimes of agricultural labour owe
to the introduction of higher yielding new crops and better varieties of old
crops.
Irrigation,
from Andalusia to the far East, from the Sudan
to Afghanistan
The
Muslims repaired them and constructed new ones; besides devising new techniques
to catch, channel, store and lift the water, and making ingenious combinations
of available devices.
30. Agriculture:
Water Management
Water,
so precious a commodity in a more Islamically aware age, was managed according
to stringent rules, any waste of the resource banned, and the most severe
economy enforced. Thus, in the Algerian Sahara
various water management techniques were used to make the most effective use of
the resource.
The
Foggaras, a network of underground galleries, conducted water from one place to
the other over very long distances so as to avoid evaporation. Although the
system is still in use today, the tendency at present is for over-use and waste
of water. Still in Algeria ,
in the Beni Abbes region, in the Sahara, south of Oran
This
clepsydra regulates with precision, and night and day, the amount going to each
farmer, timed by the minute, throughout the year, and taking into account
seasonal variations. Each farmer is informed of the timing of his turn, and
summoned to undertake necessary action to ensure effective supply to his plot.
In Spain Valencia
EXTRA
Chess
In the 8th century,
Muslims brought chess to Spain ,
and it spread to Western Europe .
Gardens
By the 8th century
botanical gardens could be found in Cordoba ,
Baghada, Cairo and Fez
Libraries
Book
stalls began to crop up all over Muslim lands by the 9th and
10th Centuries.
The proliferation of books also meant that libraries became widespread.
Geography
It was
al-Idrisi that drew the first detailed scientific map of the world in the 12th century.
He also wrote a book on the geography of the world called “The book of Roger”,
named after his patron, Roger the Second, the Norman King of Siciliy
Travelling
Muslim
sailors, merchants and explorers travelled far and wide. In the 14th century
Ibn Battuta spent 28 years of his life travelling. His journeys took him from Morocco to China
Architecture
The 15th and
16th centuries
were also a golden age of architecture in the Muslim world. The Alhambra Palace
in Spain in the 14th century,
the Sulemaniyye Mosque built by Mimar Sinan in Istanbul
in 1558, the Taj Mahal, constructed by Shah Jahan in the 17th century
in India
http://www.1001inventions.com
http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/history/muslim_inventors.html
http://www.muslimheritage.com/
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